SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Topic 1: Universe Had Spiral Galaxies 4 Billion Years Sooner Than Expected
Why in News?
- Recent studies and findings suggest that there were more spiral galaxies present during the early epochs of the universe than previously hypothesized by astronomers.
About the News:
1. Age of the Universe:
- The universe is estimated to be 13.8 billion years old and contains a diverse array of galaxies, ranging from spiral to elliptical shapes.
2. Previous Beliefs:
- Previous astronomical beliefs suggested that spiral galaxies originated approximately 6 billion years ago, but a recent study challenges this timeline.
3. Galaxy Shapes:
- Younger galaxies commonly exhibit spiral formations, whereas older galaxies display a broader spectrum of shapes.
- Studying older galaxies is challenging due to their fainter light emissions and variability in shapes over time.
4. Complex Formation History:
- The formation history of galaxies is complex, with spiral formations predominating in younger galactic epochs.
Noteworthy Information:
1. Galaxy Formation Process:
- As the universe cooled from a dense plasma state, clumps of hot gas formed, eventually evolving into galaxies.
- Early galaxies initially had irregular shapes and lacked distinct disks.
2. Traditional Spiral Formation Theory:
- Conventional theory proposed that it took billions of years for the hot, thick disks of galaxies to gradually thin out and form spiral arms.
3. New Insights from Recent Study:
- Recent research indicates that the cooling process and the formation of spiral structures in galaxies occurred concurrently during a similar cosmic timeframe.
4. Verification and Observational Techniques:
- Astronomers verify these findings by observing real-time star formation and studying the evolution of galaxies through "astronomical archaeology."
- Understanding the prevalence of spiral galaxies aids in unraveling the evolutionary history of galaxies.
5. Technological Advancements:
- Detection of early galaxies at infrared and optical wavelengths requires advanced telescopes due to the faint light emitted by older galaxies.
- The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched in 2021, significantly enhances the ability to explore deeper into the universe's past.
6. Study Methodology and Findings:
- Researchers from the University of Missouri used the JWST to analyze 873 galaxies, identifying 216 spiral galaxies, some dating back to 1.5 billion years after the universe's formation.
- Each of the study's six authors independently classified images as spiral or non-spiral, minimizing potential human bias.
7. Implications of the Study:
- The study revealed a significant increase in the fraction of spiral galaxies, rising from approximately 8% to 48% between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, challenging previous observations
- These findings suggest that current galaxy formation models may need to incorporate more complex mechanisms to fully explain the observed evolution of galaxies.
8. Uncertainties and Future Research:
- The cycle of galaxy, star, and planet formation remains complex, with uncertainties persisting about the exact processes and timelines involved.
- Continued refinement of models and expansion of observational techniques are essential for advancing our understanding of galaxy formation.
GS Paper 2 – Governance – Government Policies
GS Paper 3 – Disaster Management
Topic 2 : Factory Accidents, a Pointer to Rusty Inspection Reform
Why in News?
- In May 2024, an explosion at a chemical factory in the Dombivli MIDC area caused fatalities, injuries to workers and residents, and extensive damage to nearby properties. This incident underscored persistent concerns regarding industrial safety and raised questions about the effectiveness of existing inspection and regulatory frameworks.
About the News:
1. Explosion Incident:
- An explosion of a reactor occurred at a chemical factory in the Dombivli MIDC area, resulting in fatalities and injuries to workers and residents. It caused significant damage to nearby factories, shops, and residential properties.
2. Government Response:
- The Maharashtra government announced compensation for the families of the deceased and allocated funds for the treatment of the injured individuals.
3. Historical Context:
- Fatal industrial accidents were reported in the Dombivli MIDC area in 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2023, highlighting ongoing safety concerns and previous lapses in industrial safety management.
4. Regulatory Oversight Failures:
- Despite a decision made in 2022 to relocate 156 chemical factories from Dombivli MIDC to Patalganga, no action was taken. The Maharashtra government has been criticized for failing to implement the relocation decision effectively.
- The boiler involved in the chemical factory explosion was not registered under the Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950, indicating regulatory non-compliance and oversight failures.
Noteworthy Information:
1. Loss of Life and Injuries:
- Industrial accidents often result in fatalities and serious injuries among workers and nearby residents.
2. Environmental Damage:
- Incidents such as chemical leaks, explosions, and improper waste disposal can cause significant environmental harm, affecting air, water, and soil quality
3. Economic Disruptions:
- The financial impact includes costs associated with repairing facilities, compensating victims' families, and providing medical care for injured workers
4. Property Value Decrease:
- According to a study by the US EPA, chemical accidents can reduce property values in surrounding areas by 5-7%, impacting the local economy.
5. Psychological Trauma:
- Survivors, witnesses, and families of victims may experience longterm psychological effects such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD due to the trauma of industrial accidents.
6. Loss of Public Trust:
- Repeated industrial accidents can undermine public confidence in regulatory agencies and industries, leading to public apprehension and opposition to new industrial projects.
Increase Inspection Coverage:
1. More Inspectors:
- Fill all sanctioned inspector positions and possibly increase the number to reduce individual workload.
2. Regular and Random Inspections:
- Conduct inspections at regular intervals and randomly to avoid predictability and complacency.
Improve Compliance and Monitoring:
1. Digital Tracking Systems:
- Implement digital systems to monitor compliance and track inspection statuses.
2. Transparency in Inspections:
- Publish inspection reports and compliance statuses online for public access.
3. Comprehensive Training:
- Provide rigorous training for inspectors on safety standards, technologies, and inspection techniques.
4. Adequate Resources:
- Ensure inspectors have necessary tools and resources for thorough inspections.
Stricter Penalties:
1. Penalties for Non-Compliance:
- Increase fines and penalties for factories violating safety regulations
2. Accountability for Inspectors:
- Introduce penalties for inspectors involved in corruption or negligence.
3. Legislative Reforms:
- Update labor and safety laws to reflect current practices and technologies.
Safety and Training Programs:
1. Safety Training for Workers:
- Regular training programs for workers on safety practices and emergency procedures.
2. Safety Audits:
- Encourage third-party safety audits to provide unbiased reviews of factory standards.
Incentives and Global Standards:
1. Incentives for Compliance:
- Introduce rewards for factories adhering to safety regulations and demonstrating best practices.
2. Adoption of ILO Guidelines:
- Align national safety regulations with International Labour Organization (ILO) standards.
3. Global Best Practices:
- Study and adopt best practices from countries with exemplary industrial safety records.
Industrial Disasters in India:
1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):
- Recognized as the worst industrial disaster globally, resulting from a gas leak at the Union Carbide pesticide plant. Immediate fatalities exceeded 3,700, with thousands more enduring long-term health issues and disabilities.
2. Chasnala Mining Disaster (1975):
- Caused by a methane gas explosion in a coal mine, followed by a collapse. Approximately 700 miners lost their lives in this tragedy.
3. Korba Chimney Collapse (2009):
- Involved the collapse of a chimney under construction at a power plant. Resulted in the deaths of 45 workers.
4. Mayapuri Radiological Incident (2010):
- Occurred when workers dismantled a radioactive research irradiator in a scrapyard without adequate knowledge or equipment.
5. Bombay Docks Explosion (1944):
- A cargo ship carrying explosives detonated in Mumbai harbor. Around 800 fatalities occurred, accompanied by extensive damage to the docks and surrounding areas
Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents Convention, 1993:
1. Responsibilities of Employers (Article 14):
- Employers shall, within a fixed timeframe after a major accident, present a detailed report to the competent authority containing an analysis of the causes of the accident and describing its immediate on-site consequences, and any action taken to mitigate its effects.
- The report shall include recommendations detailing actions to be taken to prevent a recurrence.
GS - PAPER 3
TOPIC 3: Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and Their Significance
1. Context
- Bharat Biotech International Limited (BBIL), the maker of the indigenous coronavirus vaccine Covaxin, recently admitted to an “inadvertent error” in its patent filings. The company failed to include scientists from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) as co-inventors in the Covaxin patent filings. This highlights the importance of properly managing Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) to ensure all contributors receive appropriate recognition and protection.
2. What are Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)?
- Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) refer to legal rights granted to creators and owners of intellectual property, which are intangible assets resulting from human creativity and innovation. These rights provide creators and owners with exclusive control over the use and distribution of their intellectual creations, allowing them to benefit financially and protect their works from unauthorized use by others.
Main Types of Intellectual Property Rights
- 1. Patents: Protect inventions and technological innovations, granting the inventor exclusive rights to manufacture, use, and sell their invention for a limited period, typically 20 years from the date of filing the patent application.
- 2. Copyrights: Protect original works of authorship, such as literary, artistic, musical, and dramatic works, as well as software, films, and other creative expressions. Copyright holders have exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, perform, and display their works for a specified period, usually the lifetime of the author plus 50 to 70 years.
- 3. Trademarks: Protect distinctive signs, symbols, logos, names, or slogans used to distinguish the goods or services of one business from those of others. Trademark owners have the exclusive right to use their mark in commerce and prevent others from using similar marks that may confuse consumers.
- 4. Trade Secrets: Protect confidential business information, such as formulas, processes, techniques, or customer lists, which provide a competitive advantage to a business. Unlike patents, trade secrets do not require registration and can potentially last indefinitely as long as they remain secret.
- . 5. Industrial Designs: Protect the visual appearance or aesthetic aspects of a product, such as its shape, configuration, pattern, or ornamentation. Design rights grant exclusive rights to the owner to use and prevent others from using their design for a limited period.
- 6. Geographical Indications (GI): Identify goods as originating from a specific geographical location, where a particular quality, reputation, or other characteristic of the product is essentially attributable to its geographical origin. GI rights protect the unique identity and reputation of products associated with specific regions.
3. About Generic Medicines
- Generic medicines are pharmaceutical products that contain the same active ingredients, dosage form, strength, and route of administration as brand-name drugs. However, they are typically sold under their chemical or non-proprietary name instead of a brand name. Generic medicines are bioequivalent to their brand-name counterparts, meaning they have the same therapeutic effect and safety profile when administered to patients under the same conditions.
Key Characteristics of Generic Medicines
- 1. Same Active Ingredients: Generic medicines contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as brand-name drugs, responsible for the therapeutic effects of the medication.
- 2. Dosage Form and Strength: They have the same dosage form (e.g., tablet, capsule, injection) and strength as the corresponding brand-name drug, ensuring consistency in dosing.
- 3. Bioequivalence: Generic medicines must demonstrate bioequivalence to the brand-name drug through rigorous testing, ensuring similar absorption into the bloodstream.
- 4. Quality, Safety, and Efficacy Standards: They must meet the same quality, safety, and efficacy standards as brand-name drugs, with approval from regulatory authorities like the FDA or EMA.
- 5. Lower Cost: One primary advantage of generic medicines is their lower cost compared to brand-name drugs, as generic manufacturers do not incur the same research and development expenses.
- 6. Interchangeability: In many countries, including the United States, generic medicines are considered interchangeable with their brand-name counterparts, allowing pharmacists to substitute a generic version for the brand-name drug if available.
4. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement
- The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement is an international treaty administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets out minimum standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) among WTO member countries. The TRIPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations and came into effect on January 1, 1995.
Key Features of the TRIPS Agreement
- 1. Comprehensive Coverage: The TRIPS Agreement covers various forms of intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs, and trade secrets.
- 2. Minimum Standards: It establishes minimum standards of protection and enforcement for each type of intellectual property, requiring member countries to provide adequate and effective protection.
- 3. National Treatment: The agreement requires member countries to treat foreign intellectual property rights holders no less favorably than domestic rights holders.
- 4. Most Favoured Nation Treatment: Member countries must grant the same advantages, privileges, or exemptions to intellectual property rights holders from all other WTO member countries.
- 5. Flexibilities and Exceptions: The TRIPS Agreement allows member countries to adopt certain flexibilities and exceptions to promote public health, access to medicines, and other public policy objectives.
- 6. Dispute Settlement: The agreement provides for a dispute settlement mechanism to address disputes between WTO member countries regarding the interpretation and application of its provisions.
5. The Patent Criteria in India
- In India, the criteria for granting a patent are outlined in the Patents Act, 1970, and its subsequent amendments. To qualify for a patent, an invention must meet the following criteria:
- 1. Novelty: The invention must be new and not disclosed to the public anywhere in the world before the date of filing the patent application.
- 2. Inventive Step: The invention must involve an inventive step or nonobvious advancement over existing knowledge or technology for a person skilled in the relevant field.
- 3. Industrial Applicability: The invention must be capable of being made or used in an industry, having practical utility or industrial application.
- 4. Non-Patentable Subject Matter: Certain subject matters, such as frivolous inventions, methods of agriculture, and computer programs per se, are excluded from patentability under Indian patent law.
- 5. Sufficient Disclosure: The patent application must disclose the invention clearly and completely for it to be carried out by a person skilled in the relevant field.
6. The Theme of World Intellectual Property Day, 2024
- World Intellectual Property Day was established by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in 2000 to promote awareness about intellectual property rights and their importance in fostering innovation, creativity, and economic development. The date of April 26th was chosen because it marks the anniversary of the entry into force of the Convention establishing WIPO in 1970.
- 2024 Theme: "IP and the SDGs: Building Our Common Future with Innovation and Creativity"
- This year's theme focuses on how IP rights can be used to advance the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), addressing global challenges like poverty, inequality, and climate change.
7. The Way Forward
- Addressing concerns related to intellectual property rights and access to medicines requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach involving multiple stakeholders and policy domains. By engaging in dialogue, advocacy, and policy reform efforts, stakeholders can work towards ensuring that intellectual property rights support innovation while also promoting access to essential medicines for all.
